Saliendo del circulo vicioso: Gestiones alternativas para garantizar la sostenibilidad de la pesca
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Resumen
La gestión de la pesca ha sido tradicionalmente enfocada a maximizar la captura de las poblaciones de interés comercial, sin haber tenido en consideración el sistema social-ecológico que lo engloba y que consiste no solo de los ecosistemas sino también de los paisajes y las sociedades humanas. Como consecuencia, muchos ecosistemas acuáticos han sido sobreexplotados y esta situación es también evidente en Latinoamérica. Para evitar las nefastas consecuencias de la sobreexplotación para las delicadas socio-economías que se sostienen de la pesca, los esquemas de gestión tradicional se tienen que abandonar en favor de otros que aseguran tanto la dimensión socioeconómica de la pesca como la integridad ecológica de los ecosistemas acuáticos. En este artículo recomendamos una aproximación de la gestión que se basa en el concepto de resiliencia. La gestión mediante resiliencia garantiza la pesca bajo varias condiciones ecológicas sin mover los ecosistemas acuáticos a un estado crítico cerca del colapso. La gestión mediante resiliencia procura una producción anual reducida que permite mantener el sistema en un estado con múltiples provisiones de servicios y bienes ecosistémicos. La gestión mediante resiliencia tiene un enfoque sistémico, considerando tanto la producción como las ciencias ecológicas. No puede estar implementado eficazmente sin los fundamentos y el monitoreo basados en criterios científicos, y no va a tener éxito si se ignora el intercambio dinámico entre los ecosistemas y las sociedades. Las palabras Pesca y Sostenibilidad no son un oxímoron en aproximaciones basadas en la resiliencia. Forman una asociación lógica que proveen a los humanos e instituciones involucradas en la gestión de la pesca grandes oportunidades de cara a mantener a largo plazo la sostenibilidad de los recursos acuáticos.
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Cómo citar
Angeler, D. G. (2012). Saliendo del circulo vicioso: Gestiones alternativas para garantizar la sostenibilidad de la pesca. Revista Latinoamericana De Recursos Naturales, 8(2), 76-89. Recuperado a partir de https://revista.itson.edu.mx/index.php/rlrn/article/view/203
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Artículos Originales
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Allan, J.D., Abell, R., Hogan, Z., Revenga, C., Taylor, B.W., Welcomme, R.L. y Winemiller, K. 2005. Overfishing of inland waters. Bioscience, 55: 1041-1051.
Allen, C.R., Cumming, G.S., Garmestani, A.S., Taylor, P.D. y Walker, B.H. 2011a. Managing for resilience. Wildlife Biology, 17: 337-349.
Allen, C.R., Fontaine, J.J., Pope, K.L. y Garmestani, A.S., 2011b. Adaptive management for a turbulent future. Journal of Environmental Management, 92: 1339-1345.
Allen, C.R., Gunderson, L. y Johnson, A.R. 2005. The use of discontinuities and functional groups to assess relative resilience in complex systems. Ecosystems, 8: 958-966.
Allen, C.R. y Holling, C.S. 2008. Discontinuities in ecosystems and other complex systems. Columbia University Press, New York, USA.
Angeler, D.G., Viedma, O. y Moreno, J.M. 2009. Statistical performance and information content of time lag analysis and redundancy analysis in time series modeling. Ecology, 90: 3245–3257.
Angeler, D.G., Drakare, S. y Johnson, R.K. 2011. Revealing the organization of complex adaptive systems through multivariate time series modeling. Ecology and Society, 16(3): 5. URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-04175-160305
Angeler, D.G. y Johnson, R.K., 2012. Temporal scales and patterns of invertebrate biodiversity dynamics in boreal lakes recovering from acidification. Ecological Applications, 22: 1172–1186.
Anticamara, J.A., Watson, R., Gelchu, A. y Pauly, D. 2011. Global fishing effort (1950-2010): trends, gaps, and implications. Fisheries Research, 107: 131-136.
Beddington, J.R., Agnew, D.J. y Clark, C.W. 2007. Current problems in the management of marine fisheries. Science, 316: 1713-1716.
Bennett, E.M., Carpenter, S.R. y Caraco, N.F. 2001. Human impact on erodible phosphorus and eutrophication: a global perspective. BioScience, 51: 227-234.
Berkes, F. 2008. Sacred Ecology. Routledge Publishers, New York.
Biggs, H.C. y Rogers, K.H. 2003. An adaptive system to link science, monitoring, and management in practice. En: du Toit, J.T., Rogers, K.H. y Biggs H.G. (Eds) The Kruger Experience: Ecology and Management of Savanna Heterogeneity. Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 59-80.
Browne, M., Pagad, S. y De Poorter, M. 2009. The crucial role of information exchange and research for effective responses to biological invasions. Weed Research, 49: 6-18.
Carpenter, S. y Brock, W. 2004. Spatial complexity, resilience, and policy diversity: fishing on land-rich landscapes. Ecology and Society, 9(1): 8.
Carpenter, S.R. y Brock, W.A. 2006. Rising variance: a leading indicator of ecological transition. Ecology Letters, 9: 311- 318.
Carpenter, S.R. y Brock, W.A. 2008. Adaptive capacity and traps. Ecology and Society, 13(2): 40.
Carpenter, S.R., Caraco, N.F., Correll, D.L., Howarth, R.W., Sharpley A.N. y Smith, V.H. 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications, 8: 559-568.
Coleman, F.C., Figueira, W.F., Ueland, J.S. y Crowder, L.B. 2004. The impact of United States recreational fisheries on marine fish populations. Science, 305: 1958-1960.
Conroy, M.J., Allen, C.R., Peterson, J.T., Pritchard, L., Jr. y Moore, C.T. 2003. Landscape change in the southern piedmont: challenges, solutions, and uncertainty across scales. Conservation Ecology, 8(2): 3. http://www.consecol.org/vol8/iss2/art3
Cumming, G.S. 2011. Spatial Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems. Springer, London.
Cumming, G.S., Olsson, P., Chapin, F.S. y Holling, C.S., 2012. Resilience, experimentation, and scale mismatches in socialecological landscapes. Landscape Ecology (en prensa) DOI: 10.1007/s10980-012-9725-4.
Dal Bó, E. 2006. Regulatory capture: a review. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22: 203-225.
Elmqvist, T., Folke, C., Nyström, M., Peterson, G., Bengtsson, J., Walker, B. y Norberg, J. 2003. Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1: 488-494.
Folke, C., Hahn, T., Olsson, P. y Norberg, J. 2005. Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 30: 441-473.
Forbes, B.C., Stammler, F., Kumpula, T., Meschtyb, N., Pjunen, A. y Kaarlejarvi, E. 2009. High resilience in the Yamal- Nenets social-ecological system, West Siberian Arctic, Russia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106: 22041-22048.
Garcia, S.M., Kolding, J., Rice, J. 2012. Reconsidering the consequences of selective fisheries. Science, 335: 1045- 4047.
Gunderson, L.H. y Holling, C.S. 2002. Panarchy: Understanding Tranformations in Human and Natural Systems. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Hampshire, K., Bell, S. y Wallace, G. 2004. ―Real‖ poachers and predators: shades of meaning in local understanding of threats to fisheries. Society and Natural Resources, 17: 305- 318.
Hardin, G. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162: 1243-1248.
Hilborn, R., Branch, T.A., Ernst, B., Magnusson, A, Minte-Vera, C.V., Scheuerell, M.D. y Valero, J.L. 2003. State of the world’s fisheries. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 28: 359-399.
Holling, C.S. 1973: Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4: 1- 23.
Holling, C.S. 1992. Cross-scale morphology, geometry and dynamics of ecosystems. Ecological Monographs, 62: 447- 502.
Holling, C.S. y Meffe, G.K. 1996. Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management. Conservation Biology, 10: 328-337.
Holmlund, C.M. y Hammer, M. 1999. Ecosystem services generated by fish populations. Ecological Economics, 29: 253-268.
Hsieh, C., Yamauchi, A., Nakazawa, T. y Wang, W.-F. 2010. Fishing effects on age and spatial structures undermine population stability of fishes. Aquatic Sciences, 72: 165- 178.
Hutchings, J.A., Walters, C.J. y Haedrich, R.L. 1997. Is scientific inquiry incompatible with government information control? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 54: 1198-1210.
Ibarra, A.A., Reid, C. y Thorpe, A. 2000. Neoliberalism and its impact on overfishing and overcapitalisation in the marine fisheris of Chile, Mexico and Peru. Food Policy, 25: 599- 622.
Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H.. 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science, 293: 629-637.
Johnston, F.D., Arlinghaus, R. y Dieckmann, U. 2010. Diversity and complexity of angler behavior drive socially optimal input and output regulations in a bioeconomic recreationalfisheries model. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 67: 1507-1531.
Karunanithi, A.T., Cabezas, H., Frieden, B.R. y Pawlowski, C.W. 2008. Detection and assessment of ecosystem regime shifts from Fisher Information. Ecology and Society, 13(1): 22 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art22/
Laffont, J.-J. y Tirole, J. 1991. The politics of government decision-making: a theory of regulatory capture. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106: 1089-1127.
Maiolo, J.R., Johnson, J. y Griffith, D. 1992. Applications of social science theory to fisheries management: three examples. Society and Natural Resources, 5: 391-407.
Marshall, N.A. y Marshall, P.A. 2007. Conceptualizing and operationalizing social resilience within commercial fisheries in northern Australia. Ecology and Society, 12(1): 1.
Martin, D.R. y Pope, K.L. 2011. Luring anglers to enhance fisheries. Journal of Environmental Management, 92: 1409- 1413.
Masood, E. 1997. Fisheries science: all at sea when it comes to politics? Nature, 386: 105-106.
McFarlan, B.L. y Boxall, P.C. 1996. Participation in wildlife conservation by birdwatchers. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 1: 1-14.
Myers, R.A., Hutchings, J.A. y Barrowman, N.J. 1997. Why do fish stocks collapse? The example of cod in Atlantic Canada. Ecological Applications, 7: 91-106.
Nielsen, L.A. 1999. History of inland fisheries management in North America. En: Kohler, C.C. y Hubert, W.A. (Eds) Inland Fisheries Management in North America 2nd edn. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, pp. 3-30.
O’Connor, S., Ono, R. y Clarkson, C. 2011. Pelagic fishing at 42,000 years before the present and the maritime skills of modern humans. Science, 334: 1117-1121.
Olsson, P. y Folke, C. 2004. Adaptive comanagement for building resilience in social-ecological systems. Environmental Management, 34: 75-90.
Peterson, G., Allen, C.R. y Holling, C.S. 1998. Ecological resilience, biodiversity and scale. Ecosystems, 1: 6-18.
Peterson, G.D., Cumming, G.S. y Carpenter, S.R. 2003. Scenario planning: a tool for conservation in an uncertain world. Conservation Biology, 17: 358-366
Petr, T. 1994. Intensification of reservoir fisheries in tropical and subtropical countries. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie, 79: 131- 138.
Roe, E. 1996. Why ecosystem management can’t work without social science: an example form the California northern spotted owl controversy. Environmental Management, 20: 667-674.
Schaefer, M.B. 1954. Some aspects of the dynamics of populations important to the management of the commercial marine fisheries. International Pacific Salmon Fishery Commission Bulletin, 4: 27-56.
Scheffer, M. 1997. Ecology of Shallow Lakes. London, Chapman and Hall.
Scheffer, M., Bascompte, J., Brock. W.A., Brovkin, V., Carpenter, S.R., Dakos, V., Held, H., van Nes E.H., Rietkerk, M. y Sugihara, G. 2009. Early warning signals for critical transitions. Nature, 461: 53-59.
Stow, C., Allen, C.R. y Garmestani, A.S. 2007. Evaluating discontinuities in complex systems: toward quantitative measures of resilience. Ecology and Society, 12:26. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/voll2/issl/art26/
Sutinen, J.G. 1998. Blue water crime: deterrence, legitimacy, and compliance in fisheries. Law and Society Review, 32: 309-313.
Sutinen, J.G., y Kuperan, K. 1999. A socio-economic theory of regulatory compliance. International Journal of Social Economics, 26: 174-193.
Vaske, J.J. y Donnelly, M.P. 1999. A value-attitude-behavior model predicting wildland preservation voting intentions. Society and Natural Resources, 12: 523-537.
Walker, B., y Meyers, J.A. 2004. Thresholds in ecological and social–ecological systems: a developing database. Ecology and Society, 9(2): 3. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art3/
Walters, C.J. y Martell, S.J.D. 2004. Fisheries Ecology and Management. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
Wardwell, D. y Allen, C.R. 2009. Variability in population abundance is associated with thresholds between scaling regimes. Ecology and Society, 14(2): 42.
Wehrtmann, I.S. y Nielsen-Muñoz, V. 2009. The deepwater fishery along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, Central America. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research, 37: 543-554.
Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, N., 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science, 314: 787-790.
Zellmer, S., y Gunderson, L. 2009. Why resilience may not always be a good thing: lessons in ecosystem restoration from Glen Canyon and the Everglades. Nebraska Law Review, 87: 893-949.
Allen, C.R., Cumming, G.S., Garmestani, A.S., Taylor, P.D. y Walker, B.H. 2011a. Managing for resilience. Wildlife Biology, 17: 337-349.
Allen, C.R., Fontaine, J.J., Pope, K.L. y Garmestani, A.S., 2011b. Adaptive management for a turbulent future. Journal of Environmental Management, 92: 1339-1345.
Allen, C.R., Gunderson, L. y Johnson, A.R. 2005. The use of discontinuities and functional groups to assess relative resilience in complex systems. Ecosystems, 8: 958-966.
Allen, C.R. y Holling, C.S. 2008. Discontinuities in ecosystems and other complex systems. Columbia University Press, New York, USA.
Angeler, D.G., Viedma, O. y Moreno, J.M. 2009. Statistical performance and information content of time lag analysis and redundancy analysis in time series modeling. Ecology, 90: 3245–3257.
Angeler, D.G., Drakare, S. y Johnson, R.K. 2011. Revealing the organization of complex adaptive systems through multivariate time series modeling. Ecology and Society, 16(3): 5. URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-04175-160305
Angeler, D.G. y Johnson, R.K., 2012. Temporal scales and patterns of invertebrate biodiversity dynamics in boreal lakes recovering from acidification. Ecological Applications, 22: 1172–1186.
Anticamara, J.A., Watson, R., Gelchu, A. y Pauly, D. 2011. Global fishing effort (1950-2010): trends, gaps, and implications. Fisheries Research, 107: 131-136.
Beddington, J.R., Agnew, D.J. y Clark, C.W. 2007. Current problems in the management of marine fisheries. Science, 316: 1713-1716.
Bennett, E.M., Carpenter, S.R. y Caraco, N.F. 2001. Human impact on erodible phosphorus and eutrophication: a global perspective. BioScience, 51: 227-234.
Berkes, F. 2008. Sacred Ecology. Routledge Publishers, New York.
Biggs, H.C. y Rogers, K.H. 2003. An adaptive system to link science, monitoring, and management in practice. En: du Toit, J.T., Rogers, K.H. y Biggs H.G. (Eds) The Kruger Experience: Ecology and Management of Savanna Heterogeneity. Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 59-80.
Browne, M., Pagad, S. y De Poorter, M. 2009. The crucial role of information exchange and research for effective responses to biological invasions. Weed Research, 49: 6-18.
Carpenter, S. y Brock, W. 2004. Spatial complexity, resilience, and policy diversity: fishing on land-rich landscapes. Ecology and Society, 9(1): 8.
Carpenter, S.R. y Brock, W.A. 2006. Rising variance: a leading indicator of ecological transition. Ecology Letters, 9: 311- 318.
Carpenter, S.R. y Brock, W.A. 2008. Adaptive capacity and traps. Ecology and Society, 13(2): 40.
Carpenter, S.R., Caraco, N.F., Correll, D.L., Howarth, R.W., Sharpley A.N. y Smith, V.H. 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications, 8: 559-568.
Coleman, F.C., Figueira, W.F., Ueland, J.S. y Crowder, L.B. 2004. The impact of United States recreational fisheries on marine fish populations. Science, 305: 1958-1960.
Conroy, M.J., Allen, C.R., Peterson, J.T., Pritchard, L., Jr. y Moore, C.T. 2003. Landscape change in the southern piedmont: challenges, solutions, and uncertainty across scales. Conservation Ecology, 8(2): 3. http://www.consecol.org/vol8/iss2/art3
Cumming, G.S. 2011. Spatial Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems. Springer, London.
Cumming, G.S., Olsson, P., Chapin, F.S. y Holling, C.S., 2012. Resilience, experimentation, and scale mismatches in socialecological landscapes. Landscape Ecology (en prensa) DOI: 10.1007/s10980-012-9725-4.
Dal Bó, E. 2006. Regulatory capture: a review. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22: 203-225.
Elmqvist, T., Folke, C., Nyström, M., Peterson, G., Bengtsson, J., Walker, B. y Norberg, J. 2003. Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1: 488-494.
Folke, C., Hahn, T., Olsson, P. y Norberg, J. 2005. Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 30: 441-473.
Forbes, B.C., Stammler, F., Kumpula, T., Meschtyb, N., Pjunen, A. y Kaarlejarvi, E. 2009. High resilience in the Yamal- Nenets social-ecological system, West Siberian Arctic, Russia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106: 22041-22048.
Garcia, S.M., Kolding, J., Rice, J. 2012. Reconsidering the consequences of selective fisheries. Science, 335: 1045- 4047.
Gunderson, L.H. y Holling, C.S. 2002. Panarchy: Understanding Tranformations in Human and Natural Systems. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Hampshire, K., Bell, S. y Wallace, G. 2004. ―Real‖ poachers and predators: shades of meaning in local understanding of threats to fisheries. Society and Natural Resources, 17: 305- 318.
Hardin, G. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162: 1243-1248.
Hilborn, R., Branch, T.A., Ernst, B., Magnusson, A, Minte-Vera, C.V., Scheuerell, M.D. y Valero, J.L. 2003. State of the world’s fisheries. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 28: 359-399.
Holling, C.S. 1973: Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4: 1- 23.
Holling, C.S. 1992. Cross-scale morphology, geometry and dynamics of ecosystems. Ecological Monographs, 62: 447- 502.
Holling, C.S. y Meffe, G.K. 1996. Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management. Conservation Biology, 10: 328-337.
Holmlund, C.M. y Hammer, M. 1999. Ecosystem services generated by fish populations. Ecological Economics, 29: 253-268.
Hsieh, C., Yamauchi, A., Nakazawa, T. y Wang, W.-F. 2010. Fishing effects on age and spatial structures undermine population stability of fishes. Aquatic Sciences, 72: 165- 178.
Hutchings, J.A., Walters, C.J. y Haedrich, R.L. 1997. Is scientific inquiry incompatible with government information control? Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 54: 1198-1210.
Ibarra, A.A., Reid, C. y Thorpe, A. 2000. Neoliberalism and its impact on overfishing and overcapitalisation in the marine fisheris of Chile, Mexico and Peru. Food Policy, 25: 599- 622.
Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H.. 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science, 293: 629-637.
Johnston, F.D., Arlinghaus, R. y Dieckmann, U. 2010. Diversity and complexity of angler behavior drive socially optimal input and output regulations in a bioeconomic recreationalfisheries model. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 67: 1507-1531.
Karunanithi, A.T., Cabezas, H., Frieden, B.R. y Pawlowski, C.W. 2008. Detection and assessment of ecosystem regime shifts from Fisher Information. Ecology and Society, 13(1): 22 http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art22/
Laffont, J.-J. y Tirole, J. 1991. The politics of government decision-making: a theory of regulatory capture. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106: 1089-1127.
Maiolo, J.R., Johnson, J. y Griffith, D. 1992. Applications of social science theory to fisheries management: three examples. Society and Natural Resources, 5: 391-407.
Marshall, N.A. y Marshall, P.A. 2007. Conceptualizing and operationalizing social resilience within commercial fisheries in northern Australia. Ecology and Society, 12(1): 1.
Martin, D.R. y Pope, K.L. 2011. Luring anglers to enhance fisheries. Journal of Environmental Management, 92: 1409- 1413.
Masood, E. 1997. Fisheries science: all at sea when it comes to politics? Nature, 386: 105-106.
McFarlan, B.L. y Boxall, P.C. 1996. Participation in wildlife conservation by birdwatchers. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 1: 1-14.
Myers, R.A., Hutchings, J.A. y Barrowman, N.J. 1997. Why do fish stocks collapse? The example of cod in Atlantic Canada. Ecological Applications, 7: 91-106.
Nielsen, L.A. 1999. History of inland fisheries management in North America. En: Kohler, C.C. y Hubert, W.A. (Eds) Inland Fisheries Management in North America 2nd edn. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, pp. 3-30.
O’Connor, S., Ono, R. y Clarkson, C. 2011. Pelagic fishing at 42,000 years before the present and the maritime skills of modern humans. Science, 334: 1117-1121.
Olsson, P. y Folke, C. 2004. Adaptive comanagement for building resilience in social-ecological systems. Environmental Management, 34: 75-90.
Peterson, G., Allen, C.R. y Holling, C.S. 1998. Ecological resilience, biodiversity and scale. Ecosystems, 1: 6-18.
Peterson, G.D., Cumming, G.S. y Carpenter, S.R. 2003. Scenario planning: a tool for conservation in an uncertain world. Conservation Biology, 17: 358-366
Petr, T. 1994. Intensification of reservoir fisheries in tropical and subtropical countries. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie, 79: 131- 138.
Roe, E. 1996. Why ecosystem management can’t work without social science: an example form the California northern spotted owl controversy. Environmental Management, 20: 667-674.
Schaefer, M.B. 1954. Some aspects of the dynamics of populations important to the management of the commercial marine fisheries. International Pacific Salmon Fishery Commission Bulletin, 4: 27-56.
Scheffer, M. 1997. Ecology of Shallow Lakes. London, Chapman and Hall.
Scheffer, M., Bascompte, J., Brock. W.A., Brovkin, V., Carpenter, S.R., Dakos, V., Held, H., van Nes E.H., Rietkerk, M. y Sugihara, G. 2009. Early warning signals for critical transitions. Nature, 461: 53-59.
Stow, C., Allen, C.R. y Garmestani, A.S. 2007. Evaluating discontinuities in complex systems: toward quantitative measures of resilience. Ecology and Society, 12:26. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/voll2/issl/art26/
Sutinen, J.G. 1998. Blue water crime: deterrence, legitimacy, and compliance in fisheries. Law and Society Review, 32: 309-313.
Sutinen, J.G., y Kuperan, K. 1999. A socio-economic theory of regulatory compliance. International Journal of Social Economics, 26: 174-193.
Vaske, J.J. y Donnelly, M.P. 1999. A value-attitude-behavior model predicting wildland preservation voting intentions. Society and Natural Resources, 12: 523-537.
Walker, B., y Meyers, J.A. 2004. Thresholds in ecological and social–ecological systems: a developing database. Ecology and Society, 9(2): 3. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art3/
Walters, C.J. y Martell, S.J.D. 2004. Fisheries Ecology and Management. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
Wardwell, D. y Allen, C.R. 2009. Variability in population abundance is associated with thresholds between scaling regimes. Ecology and Society, 14(2): 42.
Wehrtmann, I.S. y Nielsen-Muñoz, V. 2009. The deepwater fishery along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, Central America. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research, 37: 543-554.
Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, N., 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science, 314: 787-790.
Zellmer, S., y Gunderson, L. 2009. Why resilience may not always be a good thing: lessons in ecosystem restoration from Glen Canyon and the Everglades. Nebraska Law Review, 87: 893-949.